Introduction 

The United Nations defines environmental and human rights (EHD) defenders as “individuals and groups who, in their personal or professional capacity, and in a peaceful manner, strive to protect and promote human rights relating to the environment, including water, air, land, flora and fauna”1. EHR defenders across the world remain highly vulnerable and submitted to a range of forms of violence and repression, and this is well documented by various stakeholders, including human rights organizations, United Nations’ bodies, and academics.  

An example of this documentation is the annual report published by Global Witness about lethal attacks against EHR defenders perpetrated across the globe. The most recent version of this report2 assessed that at least 2106 people, mostly in global South countries, have been killed or have disappeared between 2012 and 2024, because of their actions to protect their land, resources, and homes.  

Natural Justice also monitors and collects data on the topic: between 2020 and 2021, the organization recorded 109 cases of violations committed against EHR defenders in Africa. In a large majority of these cases, the violations consist of death threats, but we have also found that 62 of the 109 people received threats of eviction and 60 faced police arrests 3. 

The above-mentioned resources are only samples of existing ones, as many others contribute to building a body of evidence and knowledge on the topic of EHR defenders, their actions, and the repression against them.  

Several reasons justify the commissioning of another study on the issue, despite the relative richness of existing data and knowledge, however there are significant gaps in gender-disaggregated data, as well as data of lethal and no lethal attacks on the African continent. First, it is clear and recognized that attacks (lethal and non-lethal) against EHR defenders remain underreported, despite the strength of methodologies used by organizations that monitor them, and the time dedicated to it. Many reasons explain the fact that attacks are underreported, among which, the limited presence of actors4 able to monitor and report these attacks, the limited capacities of media and information outlets to report in some specific countries and locations5, and the general complexity of political and social contexts, that hamper or challenge the identification and tracking of cases. Second, the nature of attacks themselve vary and evolve, and requires regular reviews and updates of the methodologies to assess and track violations against EHR defenders. Moreover, attacks against EHR defenders take creative and innovative forms, even increasingly as the climate crisis develops6. Regarding the situations of the EHR defenders on the African continent, a lot is reported, but gaps certainly exist. Finally, and importantly, little analyses seem available on the nature and potentially, specific impact of attacks and threats on women EHR defenders in Africa specifically.  

Women environmental human rights defenders (WEHRDs) 

Historically, women defenders have led initiatives to challenge projects that are harmful to environmental and human rights on the African continent, with results and successes that are partially reported7. In response however, many face forms of violence that are common to all genders and also shaped by gender biases. The specific violence and in general, the situation of WEHRDs is in part documented in the literature. An example is a recent article in Nature Sustainability in which forms of violence experienced by EHR defenders involved in initiatives to stand against harmful extractive projects are described.8 However, the documentation and analysis of the situation of women African defenders is limited.  

In a context of increasing attacks on EHR defenders across the globe, civil society– individuals, communities, human rights organizations, etc-  is working towards and calling for the protection of EHR defenders, for processes that ensure their effective participation in decisions that affects their environmental and human rights, and for a true consideration of their claims, demands, and recommendations. To support this, international instruments such as the Escazu agreement, ratified by 15 countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, and the Aarhus Convention ratified by 47 countries since 2021 are useful tools for civil society individuals and groups to mobilize around. Both agreements promote transparency, public participation, and access to justice on environmental and related human rights issues. The establishment of a regional environmental rights convention for Africa is currently in the preliminary stages of discussions, and at this stage, Guinea Bissau is the only African continent that has ratified the Aarhus Convention9.  

In general, a growing number of protection frameworks seek to protect EHR defenders, including on the African continent. As a foundation, the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights was the first regional human rights treaty to recognize the right to a healthy environment (article 24). Over 35 countries in Africa recognize this right in their national constitutions and have committed to the implementation of the sustainable development goals (SDGs). In 2019, the UN Human Rights Council adopted a resolution to recognize the contribution of environmental defenders to the enjoyment of human rights, environmental protection and sustainable development (HRC 40/11)10, and for the recognition of the human right to a clean and healthy environment (HRC 48/13), and the resolution was adopted by 43 countries – including 13 African states. Regarding the protection of defenders specifically, the UN Declaration on Human Rights Defenders11(1999) guarantees the right to defend rights, including the right to a clean and healthy environment and all rights that rely on its fulfilment. The declaration also places an obligation on States to ensure people can exercise the right free from violence, threats, hindrance, and insecurity wherever they operate. Article 16 of the Revised African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Conservation12 provides for access to information, public participation, and legal recourse for environmental action. The IUCN 115 resolution at the World Conservation Congress (2020) 13 provides for the protection of environmental human and people’s rights defenders and whistleblowers and urges governments to adopt and uphold laws aimed at protecting them. 

Despite significant strides in the advancement of environmental rights, most African countries face challenges in implementing environmental laws and protection measures for EHR defenders.  

In various key multilateral processes, including the climate and biodiversity COPs, the inclusion of human rights language, and especially around the objective of protecting EHR defenders’ rights have been crucial objectives for the civil society. In 2025, civil society organizations, including Natural Justice and its partners (Indigenous Peoples, local communities, CSOs14, international NGOs, etc.) will continue carrying the inclusion of human rights language and measures for EHR defenders’ protection in international negotiations, as a key milestone. The proposed study is being planned to support this objective, and the parallel objective to monitor, and advocate for the enforcement of existing protection measures for defenders.  

1_Objectives 

The study has three different objectives: 

The first objective of this research will be to give an overview of existing attacks (lethal, non-lethal) and threats in Africa on EHR defenders15. The nature, context and perpetrators, impact on personal life, on human and environmental rights claims, and on capacities to act will be described, as exhaustively and precisely as possible, on a time coverage to determine with the commissioners of the study16. To meet this first objective, a literature review will be carried out (human rights organizations’ data and reports, academic papers, media coverages), complemented by a collection of primary data17. The first portion of the research may be carried out in collaboration with Natural Justice’s personnel, including by making use of the data that the organization collects via the work done under the defenders’ support fund18 and the Community Environmental Lawyers (CELOs) program. An attention will be given to the cases of attacks and threats on women EHR defenders on the continent under this objective already, but the situations of both men and women defenders will be looked at. 

The second objective of the research will be to develop case studies on (number of, to determine19) women EHR defenders in Africa, that have been exposed to attacks and threats, in response to their actions to defend and claim their environmental and human rights. The case studies will describe in details the actions taken by the EHR defenders against one specific project or various within a relevant timeframe, the attacks and threats received in response, their impact on the personal life of the defenders / their relatives or community and on their capacities to continue taking action and claim rights. The case studies will also describe the support and aid received by the defenders in case of attacks and threats and will map out the requests for protection and aid that have ignored or failed. It will lastly describe as well as possible the motivations, role, initiatives / actions and support20 mobilized by the perpetrators.  

The number of case studies to develop will be to agree with the recruited consultants, and discussed in the proposal, and during the inception period21. All case studies should focus on women defenders. 

A third objective of the study will be to conduct a review / rapid evaluation of the implementation of the Marseille resolution22, that was defined by participants during the IUCN congress in 2020 in Marseille, France. The work done under this third objective will be presented in an annex of the report, of about 10 to 15 pages. The purpose of this evaluation is to determine the impact and efficacy of the resolution from 2020 to 2025, against the backdrop of rising attacks on defenders, in order motivate for a renewed resolution in 2025. 

2_Assumptions 

It is assumed that a well-designed methodology, combining secondary data review and targeted primary data collection, will yield meaningful insights into the nature, scope, and gendered dimensions of attacks against EHR defenders. In particular, the study will seek to verify the assumptions that:  

Women environmental human rights defenders often face distinct forms of violence -including sexual harassment, stigmatization, or character defamation – that are not always captured in generalized data on defenders. 

Women defenders mobilize differently – e.g, through informal networks, grassroots leadership, and community-based activism, which may be overlooked in mainstream engagement with defenders. 

3_Research questions  

The first objective will primarily be addressed through the mobilization of the available data and literature (human rights organizations and United Nations’ reports, academics writings, etc.), with a potential complementary collection of primary data.  

The questions to be addressed will be the following:  

1. What is the nature and forms of the attacks perpetrated on the African continent, by which sectors, and which perpetrators?  

2. What particularities can be observed of the attacks and threats on EHR defenders (nature, form, impacts)? 

3. What sectors / projects are particularly connected to attacks and threats to EHR defenders?  

4. What support and resources do the perpetrators mobilize?  

5. What resources, support and aid do defenders mobilize, in case of attacks and threats? With what results?  

6. More specifically concerning women23: Of the number of attacks, lethal or non-lethal, what percentage is perpetrated against women? Are attacks on women EHR defenders underreported compared to those affecting men defenders? What are the gendered forms of violence women specifically face as EHR defenders? What specific challenges and their impact do women face as EHR defenders? How does gender impact access to information, justice and recourse?  Do women face secondary victimisation in seeking support, protection and justice? Does being women influence/dictate the form/type of environmental activism they are involved in? 

Under the second objective, the case studies will all focused on the case of women defenders, the following questions will be addressed: 

1. What actions24 have been engaged by the defender, and against what project(s), decision(s), or in relation to what environmental and human rights issue?  

2. What successes, and (large or small) victories and results have been obtained by the defender, or has the defender contributed to? How or to what extent have these victories and results been picked up by other defenders or human rights groups? 

3. What attacks and threats, under what forms and nature, and by which perpetrators (if traced), has the defender been exposed to or targeted with, in response to their action?  

4. What have been the consequences of the attacks and threats, on the defender’s personal life, her community or relatives, and on her capacities to carry out their actions to claim and defend her environmental and human rights?   

5. What aid and support have been mobilized by the defender, to claim protection and rights to express? What has been the impact of this aid and support (positive, failed, provided significative protection or not, short-term/long-term, reversible/not, etc.)?  

6. Have the perpetrators been identified or traced? What support and resources (if any) have been mobilized by the perpetrators (for instance, to avoid retaliation, etc.), and with what stakeholders? 

Under the third objective, the consultant(s) will be expected to review the key actions points integrated in the Marseille resolution25, and assess their implementation and effectiveness for all member states and on the African continent. The following two research questions will be addressed, about each or priority actions points of the resolution:  

1. Has the Marseille resolution been effective in protecting defenders? 

1. To what extent have the action points been implemented?  

2. If not, why not? 

3. With what effects on the protection of defenders?  

2. Based on the findings, what are the obligations of states under the IUCN vis-a-vis the Marseille resolution 

4_Method  

The methodology to be utilized will be a combination of a literature review, and collection of primary data. Both in the case of the first and second objectives, an attention to triangulation will be key, and recommendation is to use the lessons learnt of other organizations to determine the level of triangulation to apply, and the best methodological approach to reporting on violations and threats26.  

The primary data will consist in conducting interviews with defenders and informants to identify. Other approaches, such as a media review might be useful to complement the data collected through interviews.  

The definition of a specific time and geographical coverage will be discussed during the inception phase of the study. Expectation in this study project is to collect triangulated, robust and specific enough data. The geographical coverage will need to be thought realistically, with this objective in mind.  

Expectations are to receive a report that is based on sound and strongly evidence.  

5_Indicative timeline 

Date	Deliverable
24 April 2025	Publication of terms of reference
11 May 2025	Deadline for applying
14-15 May 2025	Shortlisting
May 2025	Interviews
1 September 2025	Delivery of draft report
30 September 2025	Delivery of final report + all final deliverables by consultant(s)

6_Deliverables  

The research team or individual researcher will be expected to deliver the following:  

1. Inception report, that gives a detailed methodological approach (sampling, geographical focus, time coverage, initial identification of case studies, etc.), timeframe, and research matrix.  

2. Some raw data (e.g., interview transcripts), within the limits of obligations in terms of confidentiality) 

3. Summary of initial finding at mid-point  

4. Draft report revised and final report with executive summary and recommendations fulfilling objectives under section 3, aligned with the utilization of the findings and study reports that we described under section 7.  

7_Use of the research product/ policy advocacy  

This research in addition to global research conducted by others like Global Witness and ALLIED, will be used as supporting evidence and advocacy for the adoption of resolutions and declarations at key environmental multilateral spaces in 2025 including the Bonn Climate Change Conference, UNFCCC COP30, UNEA 7, and the IUCN World Conservation Congress. 

Furthermore, the research will contribute to regional and continental advocacy encouraging States in Africa to adopt local legislation on the access rights of environmental defenders, as well as continental wide advocacy for the adoption of an African convention on the protection of defenders. 

Finally, the report aims to highlight and raise awareness of the gendered nature of attacks, and the specific experiences of women defenders as they seek to safeguard their land, livelihoods and identities, and environmental democracy more broadly. These perspectives, silenced and invisiblised, need to inform policy, funding and protection mechanisms to ensure interventions are gender responsive and transformative for women defenders. 

8_Confidentiality and protection measures 

To ensure the protection and safety of persons participating in the study, the consultant willalso need to submit a security plan outlining a risk management plan, data protection and confidentiality measures, incident response and protection protocols for handling security threats and breaches during the research project, and other additional considerations. 

9_Application  

The maximum budget for this consultancy is 25,000 USD. 

Interested applicants are invited to send a technical and financial proposal, CV of consultant(s), and ideally, a sample of a similar work conducted by the principal consultant by midnight, 11 May, 2025 (South Africa time). Technical and financial proposal (of no more than 25000USD) which should encompass: 

1. A research plan including an advanced overview of the study process, a methodology, an indicative sampling approach, that can be fine-tuned during the inception phase, in coordination with Natural Justice. 

2. A detailed budget. 

3. A risk management plan, and an outline of protection measures to protect the safety of participants. 

Applications should be emailed to allison@naturaljustice.org cc linda@naturaljustice.org 

Should applicants not hear back within 2 weeks of submission, please consider your application unsuccessful.